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on Interactive Information and Processing Systems for
Meteorology, Oceanography, and Hydrology
Long Beach, California
February 1997
NWS HYDROLOGIC PRODUCTS AND SERVICES:
Moving from the Traditional to the Technically Advanced
Moving from the Traditional to the Technically Advanced
| Dean T. Braatz John B. Halquist Robert J. Warvin North Central RFC NOAA/National Weather Service 1733 Lake Drive West Chanhassen, MN 55317-8581 | John Ingram Office of Hydrology NOAA/National Weather Service 1325 East-West Highway Silver Spring, MD 20910 | J. John Feldt Michael S. Longnecker Weather Service Forecast Office NOAA/National Weather Service 9607 NW Beaver Drive Johnston, IA 50131-1908 |
1. INTRODUCTION
The United States weather services program has been providing river and flood forecasts for thepublic since 1890 (Stallings and Wenzel, 1995). These forecasts have typically been provided forthe protection of life and property in the vicinity of rivers. They have also been used for theassessment of extended drought scenarios. The public, private and other federal agency sectorsare now insisting upon the expanded use of coupled National Weather Service (NWS)hydrologic/meteorologic analyses and products for the economic and environmental managementof our Nation's water resources. To meet this need, the NWS intends to capitalize upon itsmodernization in remote sensing, data automation and advanced hydrologic/hydrometeorologicmodeling. The Advanced Hydrologic Prediction System (AHPS) (Fread, 1995; Fread, et al.,1995) meets this objective and is to be operationallydemonstrated beginning with the snowmelt/spring-runoff seasonof 1997 on the Des Moines River Basin, Iowa. AHPS will provide information regarding therelative uncertainty of hydrologic variables (i.e., river stage and discharge) with lead times out toseveral weeks and months. Currently, the NWS provides river stage forecasts out to 1, 2, or 3days. Therefore, AHPS will greatly improve the capability of water facility and emergencymanagers to take timely and effective actions that will significantly mitigate the impact of majorfloods and droughts. The system will also provide products to water resource managers for thesustainable use of water. This discussion focuses on the modernized operations of the NorthCentral River Forecast Center (NCRFC), Chanhassen,Minnesota and the Weather Forecast Office (WFO) in Des Moines, Iowa. In addition, thediscussion elaborates on the need for new advances in informational displays and userrequirements.2. TRADITIONAL PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Since the first River Forecast Centers (RFC) were established, in the mid-1940s, hydrologicforecasts have been issued for a flood crest at a given point on a river or stream. Each floodforecast was based on a pre-determined flood stage where damage would occur in the reachsurrounding the forecast point. These forecast products were issued as single point values for anexpected time when the crest might occur. The watershed areas affecting these forecast pointswere generally large, on the order of thousands of square miles. In later years, the number ofhydrologic forecast points increased and the hydrologic (rainfall-runoff) forecast areas havebecome increasingly smaller, 200 to 400 square miles as a rule in the upper Midwest.Within a short period of time, after crest forecast productswere introduced, most RFCs began issuing outlooks for springsnowmelt flooding and extended mainstem (navigable rivers)forecasts. These outlooks are prepared during February andMarch, accounting for winter snowfall accumulation and normalprecipitation during the melt period. Using normal melt patterns,these data are used as input to produce one stage value thatconsiders only the present water equivalent with no additionalprecipitation. A second stage value considers both the presentwater equivalent and normal precipitation for the melt period.Extended mainstem forecasts are prepared for the towingindustry up to 28 days into the future. These are recession typeforecasts that do not consider future rainfall beyond theQuantitative Precipitation Forecasts (QPF) incorporated in dailyforecasts.
The RFCs also produce an "Advisory Product" for the WFOs that contains rainfall guidancevalues that the WFO meteorologist uses in heavy rain situations. The values are provided forcounties and specific locations with known flood potential. The guidance value considers currenthydrologic conditions and represents the amount of rainfall necessary where runoff response willcause river and streams to reach bank full stages. Ice advisories are issued periodically asconditions warrant on tributaries and weekly for mainstem rivers during cold seasons.
In order for the NWS to provide the best service, interagency coordination is on-going betweenthe NWS WFOs and RFCs, with other "need-to-know" agencies (local, state and federal)requiring real-time knowledge and technical expertise in dealing with hydrologic conditions andtrends. While the public release of forecasts and outlooks, via the news media, is the soleresponsibility of the WFOs. These NWS offices are also the public contact point for informationand specific explanations of hydrologic events.
3. EXPANDING REQUIREMENTS FOR WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The Great Flood of 1993 heightened the awareness of the devastation and strife that flooding willimpose upon society andthe environment. With this heightened awareness, our Nation'ssubsequent floods have reminded us that extreme events willcontinue to occur. Furthermore, structural modifications to theriverine environment and flood proofing of flood prone areas arenot always viable solutions. Therefore, as society continues toexperience population growth and people choose to live by thewater, we have an ever increasing need to improve ourpredictions to support flood and drought mitigation activities.As we proceed into the 21st century, individuals have matured in awareness to live in harmonywith the environment; thus, we find the recently enhanced use of the term, "sustainabledevelopment" (President's Council on Sustainable Development, 1996). Within this context, theimportance of water resources for all hydrologic regimes is increasing in importance. Forexample, in many regions of the world, including locations within the U.S., we find competingdemands for the allocation of water among its users (i.e., fisheries, irrigation, hydropower andmunicipalities). This increase in demand for water looms as a National problem that requiresimproved water quantity forecasts for sustainable use.
AHPS products with extended forecast lead times (up to several months) will greatly improve theNation's capability to take timely and effective actions that will significantly mitigatethe impact of major floods and droughts. The system will alsoprovide products to water resource managers for the evaluationof water availability and allocation for water supply, navigation,hydropower, ecosystems and agriculture. To meet these requirements, an integrated advancedhydrologic forecastingsystem will be developed which builds upon: partnerships withother water cooperators (federal, state, multi-state, quasi-governmental, and private sectororganizations); the NWSinfrastructure including the 13 RFCs and the NWS RiverForecast System (NWSRFS), a verylarge software system usedby RFC hydrologists to produce forecasts of discharge or stagetime series at selected locations (approximately 4,000 along theNation's rivers); and the NWS Modernization which is providing NWS RFCs with AdvancedWeather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS) hardware, a powerful suite of networkedcomputer workstations with graphic capabilities. The modernization of the NWS is alsoproviding national coverage with approximately 140 WSR-88D Doppler radars which providethe basis for multi-sensor, high resolution (space and time) precipitation estimates.
AHPS completes this integration for advanced hydrologic forecasting by providing the pathwayto: (1) make critical software enhancements to the NWSRFS; (2) develop a National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration (NOAA) Hydrologic Data System (NHDS); (3) increase the use ofshort-to-long-range weather and climate forecasts within the NWSRFS through appropriatehydrometeorological coupling algorithms; (4) effectively calibrate and field-implement theadvanced hydrologic/hydraulic models within the NWSRFS; (5) implement a snow estimationand updating system (SEUS) which provides gridded estimates of snow water equivalent; and (6)provide more timely, accurate, and informative forecast products to government andquasi-government water and emergency managers and to private sector intermediaries whoprovide value-added services to specific industries (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Example probabilistic ensemble streamflow predictionproduct assessed for each week
4. NWS MODERNIZED OPERATIONS
4.1 North Central RFC, Chanhassen, MNThe NCRFC is now staffing both a hydrometeorologic and a hydrologic function, covered from600 AM to 1000 PM each day. These extended hours provide greater access for WFOs andcooperating agencies to talk with an operational forecaster.Within the context of these expanded services, benchmarkforecast locations have been selected for the daily issuance of 3-day forecasts.
Additionally, the NCRFC has six Government Development Platforms (GDP) which provideworkstation processing of hydrologic models and interactive graphic displays. This advancedtechnology provides the NCRFC with pre-AWIPS capabilities creating an environment fordevelopment of AHPS activities in addition to meeting day-to-day forecast requirements moretimely and effectively.
4.1.1 Hydrometeorologic Function at NCRFC
The Hydrometeorologic Analysis and Support (HAS) function at the NCRFC has enhancedaccess to NWS modernization technologies. These technologies provide a suite of data qualitycontrol procedures, the ability to incorporate QPF from the WFOs, radar produced mean arealprecipitation values taken from the WSR-88D radar network, and a wide selection ofinformational displays and products for users. Operational enhancement examples include: theuse of displays to compare hydrologic/hydrometeorologic data from multiple sources, the use of24 hour QPFs in hydrologic forecasts, taking advantage of NWS Stage 3 precipitation-processingof radarsensed data on a 4 x 4 km grid (Figure 2), and being able to create graphs and displays that canbe viewed by other NWSoffices and interagency interests over Internet. In addition, adiscussion of current hydrometeorologic conditions is routinelyavailable for WFOs and other users.
Figure 2. Stage 3 radar precipitation data on a 4x4 km grid for August11, 1996 at 00 UTC.
4.1.2 Hydrologic Function at NCRFC
The AHPS operational era is complemented with the implementation of several hydrologicsoftware technologies of the NWSRFS. As a software system (over 400,000 lines of computercode), NWSRFS consists of many programs which are used to perform all steps necessary togenerate streamflow forecasts. The system includes the Calibration System (CS), the OperationalForecast System (OFS), the Interactive Forecast Program (IFP), and the Ensemble StreamflowPrediction (ESP) System. The CS performs the tasks needed to process historicalhydrometeorological data and to estimate model parameters for a specific basin. The OFSprovides for the processing of input data and the performance of requested hydrologic andhydraulic simulations. IFP allows a forecaster to interactively combine their hydrologic expertisewith computational tasks in producing a forecast hydrograph. ESP enables the hydrologist tomake extended probabilistic forecasts of streamflow and other hydrologic variables. SpecificNWSRFS modeling technologies being implemented by the NCRFC for the AHPS operationaldemonstration include: the Sacramento Soil MoistureAccounting Model (SAC-SMA) and the Dynamic Wave Operational (DWOPER) streamflowrouting model.
The SAC-SMA is a physically based rainfall-runoff model that accounts for percolationcharacteristics in order to simulate and transpose runoff response into stream-flow. Thedistribution of available moisture through the soil mantle follows the approach where the mantleis divided into an upper and lower zone. Each of these two zones has a tension and a free-watercomponent. Calibration of SAC-SMA model parameters, between the two zones, results inpercolation characteristics which are used to determine the capacity of each zone. In addition, afrost index is contained as a function of the SAC-SMA model. The effect of the frost index is toaccount for any significant impacts frozen ground may have on the amount of runoff resultingfrom a snowmelt and/or rainfall scenario. The operational version of SAC-SMA used at theNCRFC uses approximately twenty parameters to control the direct runoff,surface runoff, interflow, and baseflow.
The DWOPER routing model, is being implemented at the NCRFC on selected reaches of theMississippi and Illinois Rivers and on local reaches of the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers in thecity of Des Moines. DWOPER is a one-dimensional implicit, unsteady flow routing model thatcomputes stage and flow at various locations along a specified reach. It lends itself to a singleriver or an entire river system. The accommodation of various boundary conditions make itflexible. Also accommodated are irregular cross sections located at unequal distances along asingle multiple-reach river or several such rivers having a dendritic configuration. DWOPERallows for the variability of flow resistance, within river reaches, along with the change in stageor discharge. Model features include weir-flow channel bifurcations to simulate leveeovertopping, varying lateral inflows, wind effects, bridge effects and off-channel storage. Timesteps are chosen based on computational requirements. DWOPER iscomputationally efficientand its application for simulating slowly varying flood elevations of several days duration iseffective.
The union of AHPS and AWIPS technologies has improved the tasks given to forecasters toassess watershed flow events with greater precision. This is occurring at the NCRFC, not onlythrough the implementation of the advanced physically based models (i.e., SAC-SMA andDWOPER), but also with the implementation of analytical tools which provide interactivedisplays in a workstation environment. Two examples of these tools are the InteractiveCalibration Program (ICP) and IFP.
ICP provides the NCRFC the capability to visualize the Manual Calibration Program (MCP3)output by means of a graphic interface. This provides hydrologists with various options, usingcontrol features, to invoke the MCP3 so that specific output is generated for the ICP. Forexample, an individual is able to view graphical displays illustrating the hydrograph andhydrologic model parameter relationships, check on the effect of parameter values used, edit thecontrol deck, and to rerun MCP3 to test revised parameter values. This technique has providedsignificant improvement in the calibration process of the SAC-SMA at the NCRFC.
The NWSRFS IFP consists of two main applications. The first is the spatial display of the RFCarea which allows subareas to be run for a chosen time window. This display and its associatedmenu system allow for the control of the NWSRFS's OFS run sequence. The second applicationautomatically performs a series of hydrologic computations within NWSRFS. In this mode,model output is displayed allowing the hydrologist to interactively adjust the model's parameters.The NCRFC is evaluating IFP capabilities, its computational run-time on the GDPs and theinteraction required for forecast preparations.
A further enhancement to the NCRFC hydrologic function includes implementation of the newNational Weather Service Flash Flood Guidance System (NWSFFGS). This system can utilizeWSR-88D gridded precipitation data and current model hydrologic states to derive guidancevalues of varying durations. Guidance is being produced for 1,3, and 6 hour durations; however,the capability to produce 12 and 24 hour values also exists. The NWSFFGS implicitly accountsfor both liquid precipitation and snow effects by using current hydrologic information from therainfall-runoff models in NWSRFS. In addition, NWSFFGS has the capability of providing realtimeguidance based on the latest hourly precipitation estimates.
4.2 Weather Forecast Office, Des Moines, IA
The Des Moines WFO's Hydrologic Service Area (HSA) has seen many advancements in recentyears, particularly within the Des Moines River Basin which covers about one-third of the HSA.These advancements include enhancements in hydrological data collection and analyses.Furthermore, extensive data records are now available from many locations in the area. Therecord includes a worst-case scenario that manifested itself during the summer of 1993, whenunprecedented flooding occurred over much of the basin.
Hydrometeorologic data collection within the Des Moines River Basin occurs through thecooperation of federal agencies (i.e., the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers (USACE), and the NWS). These agencies have developed an extensive array ofstream and precipitation gaging sites. Within the area defined for AHPS implementation, thereare 35 stream gage sites, 22 of which are NWS river forecast points. The majority of these sitesare equipped with Data Collection Platforms (DCPs), Limited Automatic Remote Collectors(LARCs) and various other telemetry devices. Retrieval of hydrologic data from these devices ispossible at time intervals of 1 hour or less. The Des Moines River Basin also features a densenetwork of some 100 cooperative weather observers. These observers provide key assistance inthe supply of backup river observations and ground-truth rainfall reports. These reportssupplement digital precipitation estimatesgenerated locally by the WSR-88D. A high degree of involvement and coordination in the floodwarning process is also provided by emergency management officials within the basin,particularly over northern headwater areas.
Another key input to the river forecast process includes the QPF provided, twice daily, to theNCRFC by Des Moines WFO forecasters. The QPF provided in the morning covers 24 hoursdivided into 6 hour time periods. The evening QPF is an update of the last two 6 hour periods ofthe morning forecast.
5. AHPS DEMONSTRATION
5.1 Des Moines River BasinThe Des Moines River Basin was selected as the initial implementation site where the recordflooding occurred duringthe summer of 1993. The basin totals 14,450 square miles ofrolling agricultural terrain which originates in extreme southernMinnesota and flows southeasterly across central Iowa joiningthe Mississippi River a few miles below Keokuk, IA (Figure 3).A major tributary to the Des Moines River is the Raccoon Riverlying just west of the Des Moines River and joining the DesMoines River in the city of Des Moines, Iowa. The topographyin the headwaters of the basin was formed mainly from outwashplains from the glaciers to the north.
Figure 3. Des Moines River Basin
A further description of the basin may be found in itshydrologic record. Good records of streamflow exist for thebasin, for 30 years or more, with excellent opportunities forrunoff, routing, and reservoir model evaluation. Notable yearsfor instantaneous record peak flows on selected tributariesinclude June 1990, July 1982, April 1969, and April 1965.
5.2 User Response for Advanced Hydrologic Information
Customers/users of NWS hydrologic forecast productsinclude: emergency managers, the news media, water supplymanagers, reservoir managers, other federal, state, and localwater resource officials, as well as individuals in the privatesector interested in water resource management. In order tobring these users into the AHPS era team, the Des Moines WFOprovided them a questionnaire inquiring whether advancedhydrologic informational products being developed by the NWSwill meet their future anticipated requirements.
A summary of the questionnaire responses indicates a great deal of interest in receiving riverforecasts out to 10 days, during both flood and relatively benign river conditions. The responsesalso indicated an interest in obtaining forecast products, in addition to a crest date/time, e.g.,graphical information, which provide further evaluation and understanding of existing textproducts. The majority of these users will have access to the Internet by the time of AHPSimplementation.
5.3 Suite of Advanced Hydrologic Products
During fiscal year 1995, the NWS began AHPS implementation activities within the upperMississippi River basin through a significant commitment by personnel of the NCRFC, theRegional Hydrologist and other staff of the NWS Central Region Headquarters, the Des MoinesWFO, and the NWS Office of Hydrology. The AHPS short-term implementation goal is todemonstrate an operational long-term probabilistic forecast system for the Des Moines RiverBasin by the spring of 1997. AHPS functionality and associated implementation activities of theNWS include:
- Provide advanced hydrometeorologic/hydrologic modeling procedures that betteraccount for the natural and man-made complexities of the nation's river basins;
- Implement dynamic streamflow modeling in river reaches with significant dynamiceffects caused by backwater, levee overtopping, or other transient phenomena;
- Implement the ESP procedure in order to provide probabilistic hydrologic forecastsinto the future from weeks tomonths;
- Include the effect of reservoir operations in both short-term and long-term forecasts;
- Couple meteorologic forecasts at all time scales withinthe ESP procedure; and
- Provide advanced products (e.g., probability of occurrence information and inundatedarea mapping) for water resources management activities to other federal, state and localorganizations.
One enhanced product type planned to be available for the AHPS demonstration project on theDes Moines River Basin in the spring of 1997 will be probabilistic hydrologic products (Figure1). These probabilistic forecasts will convey to the user the likelihood of a variety of flowscenarios. In addition, coupled with the ESP Analysis and Display Program (ESPADP) softwarewill be utilities that permit the user to verify the effectiveness of the forecast over selectedperiods.
ESPADP will enhance forecast evaluation in several ways. First, the ease with which theanalyses can be accomplished will lead to greater use of the ESP forecasting technique. Second,by providing a variety of interactive graphical displays the forecaster will be able to understandmore easily and completely the probabilities generated by an ESP forecast. Finally, by providingmore attractive and easily read graphical outputs, NWS cooperators will find it easier to utilizeforecast products. ESPADP analyses will include forecast probability hydrographs, historicalprobability hydrographs, automatic forecast adjustment to account for model error,hydrometeorological analyses to link past and present years, and forecast verification. It isthrough these means of forecast evaluation and verification that the forecaster will be able toprovide a measure of confidence to any specific forecast. This information is essential for waterresource and emergency managers as they integrate a multitude of data into a single decision. Inthis manner, modernized hydrologic forecast products will not only provide the forecaster with amechanism to impart critical hydrologic forecast information, but will also provide waterresource managers risk analysis products for alternative hydrologic scenario decision making.
These new products are a huge step forward from the previous ESP output format. In the past,forecasters were forced to review tabular output for a limited period, they now will be able toeasily review the expected flows over a range of future time periods. In addition, it will bepossible to pass graphicaldisplays on to decision makers, thus enhancing their understanding of the state of the hydrologicsystem. This is the type of easy to read detailed forecast products that emergency management officials and on-site disaster managers requested after the Great Flood of 1993.
Once AHPS has been implemented for the Des Moines River basin, its implementation in otherNCRFC River Basins will occur. As an increase in resources become available, AHPSimplementation can be expedited within the Mississippi Basin as well as early implementationin one or more additional basins in the United States.
6. FURTHER ADVANCEMENTS - LOOKING INTO THE FUTURE
The NWS issues forecast and warning products in near real-time to a wide variety of otherfederal, state, and local agencies. This information dissemination involves coordination issues,data exchange, product formatting and user services. Major cooperating agencies involved inthese activities include the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the USACE, andlocal and state emergency management agencies.In most cases during the Great Flood of 1993, and our Nation's subsequent flood events, thecoordination activities among the cooperating agencies were reported by users as exceptional. Inthe aftermath of many of these events, especially the 1993 flood, many meetings and conferenceswere held which provided recommendations involving hydrologic forecasts and informationexchange. These recommendations for product and service enhancements include thedissemination of forecasts via interactive graphic displays and improved communication withcooperating agencies via teleconferencing.
Discussions continue on how the NWS offices can best serve other cooperating agencies in aflood scenario. This need is being addressed in the following manner: have an individual fromthe WFO on site in a Emergency Operations Center (EOC) at a USACE District office; fieldoffice staff dedicated to answering media inquiries; provide graphic product displays for localmedia's use; make use of NOAA Weather Radio (NWR), etc. These activities are leading tofuture needs and requirements as the Illinois Governor's Conference (Illinois, 1994) suggests theyare "an integral ingredient to a more holistic view of floodplain management" and flood fightingcapabilities.
Additional enhancements to NWS communication during a flood event are being made throughimplementation of the advanced technologies that AHPS will provide. The AHPS short-termdesign features include probabalistic long-range outlook hydrographs for stage, discharge andflow volume that have accompanying indicators of uncertainty. Long-term design featuresinclude gridded estimates of snow-water equivalent, soil moisture and flash flood guidance, andprobabalistic flood inundation mapping capabilities. New product requirements are also beinginvestigated in coordination with NWS WFOs and other federal agencies, such as USACE andFEMA.
With added flexibility and graphical displays available from ESPADP, a variety of envisionedforecast products and graphical displays, beyond those planned for the AHPS demonstration, canbe generated by the RFCs. Investigations into possible products are underway to assesscooperator interest and system development including data input, data storage, software designand product formats. For example, several end users of NWS long range stage forecasts haverequested that National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) long-lead meteorologicaloutlooks be included in these long-range stage forecasts. Inclusion of such forecasts is happeningthrough the development of new scientific algorithms, the definition of new input data streams,new data storage facilities and the development of appropriate displays of the forecast data.
Two long-term goals of the AHPS project are to develop the capability to generate inundationmaps based on the probabalistic stage forecasts and to provide gridded estimates of a variety ofstate variables describing the hydrologic system. The first goal of inundation mapping will be toprovide local emergency managers a clear definition of the areas that are likely to experienceflooding and the depth of flooding likely to occur at a given location. Also, by coupling themapped areas with probabalistic forecasts, emergency managers will be able to evaluate the riskof future inundation and recommend appropriate actions for the threatened areas. Therefore, thetranslation of the forecast river stage to actual locations on the ground will be more readilycommunicated with these types of inundation maps. The second goal, gridded estimates ofhydrologic variables, will provide forecasters and users with an in depth view of the naturalsystem. Gridded estimates of the snow cover and soil moisture will enable forecasters andmanagers to evaluate the probability of flooding in more localized areas.
7. SUMMARY
NOAA has the national responsibility to provide river, flood and drought forecasts and outlooksto the public for the protection of life and property. These products provide a multitude of waterresource managers with reliable hydrologic data and understandable displays which are utilizedin the decision making process for the economic and environmental well-being of the Nation'swater resources. AHPS will greatly improve and enhance NOAA's capability to provide morereliable, timely and accurate forecasts to meet these priorities. NOAA's customers, becomingbetter informed and equipped, will be in a stronger position to meet their objectives.Floodplain and water resource management decisions, as a result, will become more confidentlydetermined than previously possible. Thereby, as these advanced products come on line, theimplementation of AHPS will elevate NOAA's leadership rolein fostering economic gains for environmentally sound decisionmaking for all streamflow regimes and climatic scenarios.8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to recognize those NWS employees dedicated to making the modernized NWSa reality which as an organization is technically equipped to meet the challenge of forecastingextreme and harsh natural disasters. Special appreciation is extended to Mike DeWeese andSteve Kruckenberg for their technical assistance and to Craig Edwards and Preston Leftwich fortheir review of the manuscript. Very special thanks go to Kathy Patterson for her patience,assistance and preparation of the final manuscript.9. REFERENCES
Braatz, Dean T., December 1994. "Hydrologic Forecasting forThe Great Flood of 1993," Water International, Volume 19,Number 4, International Water Resources Association, Urbana,Illinois.Fread, D.L., June 1995. "A Pathway Toward Improving Hydrologic Predications," IowaHydraulics Colloquium, Issues and Direction in Hydraulics, IAHR's Journal of HydraulicResearch, Iowa City, Iowa.
Fread, D.L., R.C. Shedd, G.F. Smith, R. Farnsworth, C.N. Hoffeditz, L.A. Wenzel, S.M. Wiele,J.A. Smith, and G.N.Day, September 1995. "Modernization in the National WeatherService River and Flood Program," Weather and Forecasting, Vol. 10, No. 3,American Meteorological Society, Boston, Massachusetts.
Illinois, Office of the Governor, March 1, 1994. "The GreatFlood of 1993, Long Term Approaches to Rivers IncludingLessons Learned and Information Gaps," Governor's Workshop,Illinois Department of Agriculture, Springfield, Illinois.
Ingram, John J., Edwin Wells, and Dean Braatz, January 1996."Advanced Products and Services for Flood and DroughtMitigation Activities," 12th International Conference onInteractive Information and Processing Systems (IIPS) forMeteorology, Oceanography, and Hydrology, AmericanMeteorological Society, Atlanta, Georgia.
Larson, L.W., R.L. Ferral, E.T. Strem, and A.J. Morin,September 1995. "Operational Responsibilities of the NationalWeather Service River and Flood Program," Weather andForecasting, Vol. 10, No. 3, American Meteorological Society,Boston, Massachusetts.
National Weather Service, "National Weather Service RiverForecast System (NWSRFS) User's Manual," Office ofHydrology, National Weather Service, Silver Spring, Maryland.
President's Council on Sustainable Development, February1996. "Sustainable America: A New Consensus for Prosperity,Opportunity, and a Healthy Environment for the Future,"Washington, D.C.
Stallings, E.A. and L.A. Wenzel, September 1995. "Organization of the River and Flood Programin the National Weather Service," Weather and Forecasting, Vol. 10, No. 3,American Meteorological Society, Boston, Massachusetts.
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